Babylonia

From JudaismWiki

BABYLONIA. Ancient Asiatic land lying between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, today southern Iraq, Babylonia was the cradle of ancient civilization and the seat of empires, occupying an important place in Jewish history. Ur, the capital of the Sumerian Empire—one of the earliest in the region—was the birthplace of the patriarch Abraham. Hammurabi, one of the most famous rulers of the region (ca. 1700 B.C.E.), is known for his code of law, parts of which parallel the biblical code. Hammurabi made the great city of Babylon the capital of his empire.

In the course of the 11th century B.C.E., the powerful empire of Assyria conquered Babylonia and destroyed Babylon, building its own capital, Nineveh. Three centuries later, the Assyrian kings, Tiglath-Pileser IV and Sargon II, conquered the northern kingdom of Israel, destroyed its capital, Samaria, and deported its inhabitants, the ten tribes of Israel.

A revival of Babylonian civilization was introduced by the Semitic Chaldeans, known in Hebrew as the Kasdim of the Bible. The Chaldean Empire peaked under King Nebuchadnezzar II, who captured Jerusalem in 597 B.C.E., destroyed it a decade later, and banished all the Jews to Babylonia.

In Babylonia, the exiles of Judah may have joined the lost ten tribes of Israel, who had been deported by the Assyrian kings two centuries earlier. The exiles developed their own traditions and institutions. The Babylonian kings gave them autonomy in religious and spiritual matters, at the same time allowing them to engage freely in agriculture and trade.

After the conquest of Babylonia by Cyrus, king of Persia (538 B.C.E.), the Jews were permitted to return to Zion. Many joyfully seized the opportunity to rebuild their homeland, but the majority of the exiles remained in their adopted land, Babylonia. During the succeeding centuries of Persian rule, Babylonia became one of the greatest Jewish centers, second only to Palestine Palestine in importance and influence. Communities sprang up throughout the land but kept close ties with Jews in Palestine. Many made the pilgrimage to the Second Temple in Jerusalem. Numerous schools provided basic education in Jewish law. More promising students went to Palestine to continue their studies, and later returned to spread Jewish learning throughout Babylonia.

In the year 312 B.C.E., shortly after the death of Alexander the Great, who had conquered Babylonia, this flourishing country came under the rule of the Syrian king Seleucus Nicator. In 160 B.C.E., Babylonia was conquered by Mithridates I, king of Parthia. The Parthians of Central Asia granted the Jews equal rights and full freedom of religion. Babylonian Jewry was headed by an Exilarch, a descendant of the House of David. The Exilarch had absolute authority on religious matters and was highly esteemed by Babylonian Jewry. As the official head of his people, he appeared at the court of the king dressed in stately robes, riding a golden chariot, and preceded by horsemen who announced his arrival. The Exilarch had varied powers: he collected taxes for the king’s treasury from the Jewish population and acted as the supreme judge of Babylonian Jewry. He appointed officials and judges who were responsible for maintaining law and order in the Jewish communities.

Babylonian Jewry actively supported their Palestinian compatriots in the struggle for liberation from Syrian rule during the time of the Hasmoneans. Later in 69 C.E., when Jews in Palestine attempted to throw off the Roman yoke, thousands of Babylonian Jews joined their ranks. They supplied the fighters with funds and ammunition for their resistance to the enemy. After the destruction of Jerusalem, when the centers of learning were reestablished in other parts of Palestine, many Babylonians came to the academies to study law. Among them were such great scholars as Abba Arikha, known as Rav, and Samuel Yarhinai. Upon their return to Babylonia, Rav founded the Academy of Sura and Samuel Yarhinai built the academy of Nehardea. Other great schools of learning were established later in the Jewish centers, Pumbeditha and Mahuza. Rav and Samuel were the first Babylonian Amoraim.

With the fall of the Parthian Empire (226 C.E.) and the rise of the new Persian rule, the Jews of Babylonia suffered great hardships. Their devotion to the study of the Law, however, did not diminish. During the period extending from the 3rd to 6th century, Babylonian scholars produced the great work known as the Babylonian Talmud.

At the beginning of the 5th century, the Byzantine empire abolished the last remnant of Jewish religious freedom in Palestine. Babylonia then became the spiritual center of all Jewry, cementing Jewish unity through intensive scholarly activity. This study continued despite frequent persecution by Persian rulers. At the end of the 5th century, when Persian priests were making life intolerable for Jews, a young Exilarch, Mar Zutra II, rebelled against Persian rule and established a small, independent Jewish state at Mahuza. For seven years he succeeded in fighting off the enemy, until he was overpowered by superior Persian forces. Mar Zutra was captured and publicly executed.

In the 7th century a revival of Jewish life and learning took place in Babylonia after the Muslims conquered the land. The office of the Exilarch was restored to its full power and glory. A new period of Jewish scholarship, the period of the Geonim (see Gaon), emerged and endured for 400 years. The academies of Sura and Pumbeditha flourished again in the days of the Amoraim and their learned successors, the Saboraim. The Geonim stood at the head of the academies. Two months of the year, called the Kalla months, were devoted to popular study. Jews from all walks of life would flock to the yeshivot (see Yeshiva) during this time to study the Law. Thus, knowledge of the Talmud became widespread and entrenched in Jewish life.

Jews from around the world, especially North Africa, gave financial support to the Babylonian academies. Whenever problems of law arose, they relied upon the decisions of the Babylonian Geonim. Though Palestinian scholarship experienced a similar revival under Muslim rule, it did not enjoy the prestige conferred on the Babylonian teachers. One of the greatest Babylonian Geonim was Saadiah Gaon, who successfully combated the Karaites sect which threatened traditional Judaism. After his death, the Babylonian Jewish centers began to decline. In 948, persecution, poverty, and a weakening of the Muslim empire forced the closing of the renowned academy Sura after 700 years of creative activity. The office of the Exilarch was abolished. Only the Pumbeditha academy still existed, headed by two of the foremost scholars, Sherira Gaon and his son, Hai Gaon. By the middle of the 11th century, Babylonian centers had dwindled considerably. Jewish life and scholarship now moved westward to Spain, Italy, and Germany.